GIS-based landscape design research

Landscape design research is important for cultivating spatial intelligence in landscape architecture. This study explores GIS (geographic information systems) as a tool for landscape design research - investigating landscape designs to understand them as architectonic compositions (architectonic plan analysis). The concept ‘composition’ refers to a conceivable arrangement, an architectural expression of a mental construct that is legible and open to interpretation. Landscape architectonic compositions and their representations embody a great wealth of design knowledge as objects of our material culture and reflect the possible treatment of the ground, space, image and program as a characteristic coherence. By exploring landscape architectonic compositions with GIS, design researchers can acquire design knowledge that can be used in the creation and refinement of a design.  The research aims to identify and illustrate the potential role of GIS as a tool in landscape design research, so as to provide insight into the possibilities and limitations of using GIS in this capacity. The critical, information-oriented case of Stourhead landscape garden (Wiltshire, UK), an example of a designed landscape that covers the scope and remit of landscape architecture design, forms the heart of the study. The exploration of Stourhead by means of GIS can be understood as a plausibility probe. Here the case study is considered a form of ‘quasi-experiment’, testing the hypothesis and generating a learning process that constitutes a prerequisite for advanced understanding, while using an adjusted version of the framework for landscape design analysis by Steenbergen and Reh (2003). This is a theoretically informed analytical method based on the formal interpretation of the landscape architectonic composition addressing four landscape architectonic categories: the basic, the spatial, the symbolic and the programmatic form. This study includes new aspects to be analysed, such as the visible form and the shape of the walk, and serves as the basis for the landscape architectonic analysis in which GIS is used as the primary analytical tool.  GIS-based design research has the possibility to cultivate spatial intelligence in landscape architecture through three fields of operation: GIS-based modelling: description of existing and future landscape architectonic compositions in digital form; GIS-based analysis: exploration, analysis and synthesis of landscape architectonic compositions in order to reveal latent architectonic relationships and principles, while utilizing the processing capacities and possibilities of computers for ex-ante and ex-post simulation and evaluation; GIS-based visual representation: representation of (virtual) landscape architectonic compositions in space and time, in order to retrieve and communicate information and knowledge of the landscape design.  Though there are limitations, this study exemplifies that GIS is a powerful instrument to acquire knowledge from landscape architectonic compositions. The study points out that the application of GIS in landscape design research can be seen as an extension of the fundamental cycle of observation, visual representation, analysis and interpretation in the process of knowledge acquisition, with alternative visualisations and digital landscape models as important means for this process. Using the calculating power of computers, combined with inventive modelling, analysis and visualisation concepts in an interactive process, opened up possibilities to reveal new information and knowledge about the basic, spatial, symbolic and programmatic form of Stourhead. GIS extended the design researchers’ perception via measurement, simulation and experimentation, and at the same time offered alternative ways of understanding the landscape architectonic composition. This gave rise to the possibility of exploring new elements in the framework of landscape design research, such as the visible form and kinaesthetic aspects, analysing the composition from eyelevel perspective. Moreover, the case study showcases that GIS has the potential to measure phenomena that are often subject to intuitive and experimental design, combining general scientific knowledge of, for instance, visual perception and way-finding, with the examination of site-specific design applications. GIS also enabled one to understand the landscape architectonic composition of Stourhead as a product of time, via the analysis of its development through reconstruction and evaluation of several crucial time-slice snapshots. The study illustrates that GIS can be regarded an external cognitive tool that facilitates and mediates in design knowledge acquisition. GIS facilitates in the sense that it can address the ‘same types of design-knowledge’ regarding the basic, spatial, symbolic and programmatic form, but in a more precise, systematic, transparent, and quantified manner. GIS mediates in the sense that it influences what and how aspects of the composition can be understood and therefore enables design researchers to generate ‘new types of design-knowledge’ by advanced spatial analysis and the possibility of linking or integrating other information layers, fields of science and data sources. The research contributes to the development and distribution of knowledge of GIS-applications in landscape architecture in two ways: (1) by ‘following’ the discipline and developing aspects of it, and (2) by setting in motion fundamental developments in the field, providing alternative readings of landscape architecture designs

GIS-based landscape design research:

Landscape design research is important for cultivating spatial intelligence in landscape architecture. This study explores GIS (geographic information systems) as a tool for landscape design research - investigating landscape designs to understand them as architectonic compositions (architectonic plan analysis). The concept ‘composition’ refers to a conceivable arrangement, an architectural expression of a mental construct that is legible and open to interpretation. Landscape architectonic compositions and their representations embody a great wealth of design knowledge as objects of our material culture and reflect the possible treatment of the ground, space, image and program as a characteristic coherence. By exploring landscape architectonic compositions with GIS, design researchers can acquire design knowledge that can be used in the creation and refinement of a design.  The research aims to identify and illustrate the potential role of GIS as a tool in landscape design research, so as to provide insight into the possibilities and limitations of using GIS in this capacity. The critical, information-oriented case of Stourhead landscape garden (Wiltshire, UK), an example of a designed landscape that covers the scope and remit of landscape architecture design, forms the heart of the study. The exploration of Stourhead by means of GIS can be understood as a plausibility probe. Here the case study is considered a form of ‘quasi-experiment’, testing the hypothesis and generating a learning process that constitutes a prerequisite for advanced understanding, while using an adjusted version of the framework for landscape design analysis by Steenbergen and Reh (2003). This is a theoretically informed analytical method based on the formal interpretation of the landscape architectonic composition addressing four landscape architectonic categories: the basic, the spatial, the symbolic and the programmatic form. This study includes new aspects to be analysed, such as the visible form and the shape of the walk, and serves as the basis for the landscape architectonic analysis in which GIS is used as the primary analytical tool.  GIS-based design research has the possibility to cultivate spatial intelligence in landscape architecture through three fields of operation: GIS-based modelling: description of existing and future landscape architectonic compositions in digital form; GIS-based analysis: exploration, analysis and synthesis of landscape architectonic compositions in order to reveal latent architectonic relationships and principles, while utilizing the processing capacities and possibilities of computers for ex-ante and ex-post simulation and evaluation; GIS-based visual representation: representation of (virtual) landscape architectonic compositions in space and time, in order to retrieve and communicate information and knowledge of the landscape design.  Though there are limitations, this study exemplifies that GIS is a powerful instrument to acquire knowledge from landscape architectonic compositions. The study points out that the application of GIS in landscape design research can be seen as an extension of the fundamental cycle of observation, visual representation, analysis and interpretation in the process of knowledge acquisition, with alternative visualisations and digital landscape models as important means for this process. Using the calculating power of computers, combined with inventive modelling, analysis and visualisation concepts in an interactive process, opened up possibilities to reveal new information and knowledge about the basic, spatial, symbolic and programmatic form of Stourhead. GIS extended the design researchers’ perception via measurement, simulation and experimentation, and at the same time offered alternative ways of understanding the landscape architectonic composition. This gave rise to the possibility of exploring new elements in the framework of landscape design research, such as the visible form and kinaesthetic aspects, analysing the composition from eyelevel perspective. Moreover, the case study showcases that GIS has the potential to measure phenomena that are often subject to intuitive and experimental design, combining general scientific knowledge of, for instance, visual perception and way-finding, with the examination of site-specific design applications. GIS also enabled one to understand the landscape architectonic composition of Stourhead as a product of time, via the analysis of its development through reconstruction and evaluation of several crucial time-slice snapshots. The study illustrates that GIS can be regarded an external cognitive tool that facilitates and mediates in design knowledge acquisition. GIS facilitates in the sense that it can address the ‘same types of design-knowledge’ regarding the basic, spatial, symbolic and programmatic form, but in a more precise, systematic, transparent, and quantified manner. GIS mediates in the sense that it influences what and how aspects of the composition can be understood and therefore enables design researchers to generate ‘new types of design-knowledge’ by advanced spatial analysis and the possibility of linking or integrating other information layers, fields of science and data sources. The research contributes to the development and distribution of knowledge of GIS-applications in landscape architecture in two ways: (1) by ‘following’ the discipline and developing aspects of it, and (2) by setting in motion fundamental developments in the field, providing alternative readings of landscape architecture designs

Applications of GIS in landscape design research

Despite its widespread availability there is evidence that GIS is underused in the realm of landscape design research. Though recognized as a useful tool for mapping and planning,  the potential of GIS is often still underutilized due to a lack of awareness and prejudice. This paper explores some concepts of GIS-based analysis which link to the very heart of landscape architecture in a natural and intuitive way. Hence the possibility to break down barriers of using GIS in landscape architecture this paper aims to put forward some characteristic principles of study and practice that can be made operational via GIS while cultivating spatial intelligence in landscape design through exploiting its powerful integrating, analytical and graphical capacities. In this respect educational and research institutions have an important role to play, they must take the lead in knowledge acquisition on GIS-applications and passing it on, contributing to the academic underpinning and development of a digital culture in landscape architecture

Visual research in landscape architecture

A core activity of landscape architecture is designing and construction of outdoor space. In addition to that landscape architecture can be considered a matter of epistemology, a way of looking, with the architectonic composition as core of landscape architectonic research and design. An architectural composition can be comprehended by addressing four layers of interest: basic form, corporeal form, visible form and purposive intention. This article argues that GISc offers researchers new possibilities for representing, analysing and modelling landscape architectonic compositions to study its visible form. The visible form derives from the act of perceiving, which is linked with the sequential unfolding of information as our bodies pass through space. We can understand the visible form from the vertical perspective, its conceptual order, and from the horizontal perspective, its perceptual order. GISc in relation to the conceptual order deals with geometric properties such as shape, symmetry, rhythm, alignment, congruence, and repetition. GISc in relation to the perceptual order considers landscape architectonic compositions as it is encountered by an individual within it, moving through it, making use of GIS-based isovists and viewsheds. This article focuses on the analysis of the relationship between the conceptual and perceptual order of a landscape architectonic composition by measuring visible space, using GIS-based methods and techniques and link the outcomes to the geometric properties of the design. Piazza San Marco (Venice, IT) and Stourhead landscape garden (Wiltshire, UK) are used as examples to showcase some applications

Landscape policy and visual landscape assessment: The Province of Noord-Holland as a case study

Spatial quality is a key element in landscape policy of the province of Noord-Holland in the Netherlands. Visual attributes such as spaciousness, openness, and landscape enclosure are considered as constituent elements of spatial quality and play a crucial role in comprehending and defining landscape identity. This article introduces a landscape planning and design oriented approach towards landscape physiognomic issues in order to describe, protect and develop the visual landscape. Expert knowledge and advanced spatial research methods and techniques are combined in a landscape physiognomic framework for landscape policy, planning and design. This framework is recently employed by the provincial authority and is adopted in the Structural Concept of Noord-Holland 2040. In the presented approach the application of the visual attributes through GIS resulted in an integral landscape physiognomic framework for spatial planning and design. This framework addresses three different scales of physiognomic research: scale of the province, scale of the landscape unit, and scale of the observer. Grid-based and viewshed-based methods are employed in order to comprehend and connect these conceptual and perceptual spaces. This planning and design oriented approach offered the provincial authority a framework for managing and monitoring the visual landscape and is recently adopted in the structural concept of Noord-Holland. The article addresses the theoretical, methodological and technical foundations, as well as its implication for landscape policy of the provincial authority

Hi Rise, I can see you! Planning and visibility assessment of high building development in Rotterdam

West European cities like London, Paris, Rotterdam and Frankfurt am Main have seen impressive high-rise developments over the past two decades. The cities with a longstanding tradition of urban management, building regulations and zoning plans seem to feel the need for additional instruments to control the development of what is described by McNeill (2005) as "an extremely complex spatial phenomenon". It was only after the emergence of a new type of high building development in the inner cities and suburban centres in the early 1990s that the image of high buildings started to change for the better, not just in the Netherlands but also throughout much of Europe. Even now, high buildings evoke emotions and provoke controversies. This has led them to develop policies for regulating the planning and construction of tall buildings, high-rise buildings and skyscrapers within their territory. This article presents a systematic approach for analysing the visual impact of high building development on a city and its surrounding region, using Rotterdam as a case study. This work is based on a previous analysis that included aspects such as architectural height, year of completion, location and functional use of high buildings in the city. It allowed us to compare the actual high building development with the urban policies in place. The showcase city of Rotterdam demonstrates that a considerable distance exists between policy and reality. The city struggles to deliver a consistent and integrated policy for high-rise urban areas, although the high building developments themselves seem to be ruled by a remarkable internal logic that is not fully recognised in policymaking. By studying the height and completion year, identifying the tall building cluster as it is perceived visually, and by conducting a GISc-based visibility analysis, it provides a context to tall building designs, making the assessment of individual projects more transparant and balanced, and removing some of the emotional elements that often enter into the discussions

Towards a Landscape-based Regional Design Approach for Adaptive Transformation in Urbanizing Deltas

Deltaic areas are among the most promising regions in the world. Their strategic location and superior quality of their soils are core factors supporting both human development and the rise of these regions as global economic hubs. At the same time, however, deltas are extremely vulnerable to multiple threats from both climate change and the rush to urbanization. These include an increased flood risk combined with the resulting loss of ecological and social-cultural values. The urbanization of deltas can be understood as a set of complex social-ecological systems (and subsystems), each with its own dynamics and speed of change. To ensure a more sustainable future for these areas, spatial strategies are needed to strengthen resilience, i.e. help the systems to cope with their vulnerabilities as well as enhance their capacity to overcome natural and artificial threats. In this article we elaborate a landscape-based regional design approach for the adaptive urban transformation of urbanizing deltas, taking the Pearl River Delta as a case study. Based on an assessment of the dynamics of change regarding the transformational cycles of natural and urban landscape elements, eco-dynamic regional design strategies are explored to reveal greater opportunities for the exploitation of natural and social-cultural factors within the processes of urban development. Furthermore, adaptive transformational perspectives are identified toensure reduced flood risk and inclusive socio-ecological design

Geo-Design: Advances in bridging geo-information technology, urban planning and landscape architecture

Geodesign is a GIS-based planning and design method, which tightly couples the creation of design proposals with impact simulations informed by geographic contexts. Geodesign as such comprises a set of geo-information technology driven methods and techniques for planning built and natural environments in an integrated process, and includes project conceptualization, analysis, design specification, stakeholder participation and collaboration. Though the origins of this concept can be traced back to the early1960’s – and without computers to the end of the nineteenth century – from 2005 onwards the term geodesign was introduced in order to (re-)present GIS (geographic information systems) as an instrument for planning and design. In fact it is an attempt to bridge the possibilities of geo-information technology and the needs of urban landscape research, planning and design. This is needed because often GIS is recognized as a useful tool but the potential of GIS is still underutilized in these fields, often due to a lack of awareness and prejudice.  Geodesign. Advances in bridging geo-information technology, urban planning and landscape architecture brings together a wide variety of contributions from authors with backgrounds in urban planning, landscape architecture, education and geo-information technology presenting the latest insights and applications of geodesign. Geo-Design is here understood as a hybridisation of the concepts “Geo” – representing the modelling, analytical and visualization capacities of GIS, and “Design” – representing spatial planning and design, turning existing situations into preferred ones. Through focusing on interdisciplinary design-related concepts and applications of GIS international experts share their recent findings and provide clues for the further development of geodesign. This is important since there is still much to do. Not only in the development of geo-information technology, but especially in bridging the gap with the design-disciplines. The uptake on using GIS is still remarkably slow among landscape architects, urban designers and planners, and when utilised it is often restricted to the basic tasks of mapmaking and data access. Knowledge development and dissemination of applications of geodesign through research, publications and education therefore remain key factors. This publication draws upon the insights shared at the Geodesign Summit Europe held at Delft University of Technology in 2014. All contributions in the book are double blind reviewed by experts in the field. The publication starts with a personal historical perspective by Carl Steinitz, one of the founding fathers of geodesign. Further contributions are organized thematically in three parts. The papers in part 1 focus on advances, applications and challenges of geodesign in spatial planning and design. Part 2 treats more specific issues and applications of geodesign related to land use, urban and facility management. Part 3 presents some interesting cases of geodesign education. While all the papers address the wider scope of geodesign they also treat synthetic positions that overarch the whole variety of aspects touched upon, either thematically or in a specific place

Karakteristiek Duurzaam Erfgoed in Gelderland: KaDEr-stellingen

Deze publicatie is een weerslag van de uitkomsten van het KaDEr-project (Karakteristiek Duurzaam Erfgoed) dat de TU Delft in opdracht van en in samenwerking met de Provincie Gelderland heeft uitgevoerd. De lezer wordt meegenomen in de zoektocht om invulling te geven aan de relatie tussen wetenschap, praktijk en beleid rondom duurzaam erfgoed op verschillende schaalniveaus. Aan de hand van acht bijdragen wordt gereflecteerd op het proces en de uitkomsten. We noemen dit ‘KaDEr-stellingen’. Er was een kader, we stelden kaders bij en we namen positie in, stelligheden werden ter discussie gesteld en aan het eind worden conclusies verwoord in stellingnames. Hierbij kan kritisch gereflecteerd worden op proces en uitkomsten. De auteurs doen dit aan de hand van een thema dat gedurende de afgelopen vier jaar aan de orde is geweest binnen hun domein. Zij nemen dus stelling in met betrekking tot het debat dat naar aanleiding van dit thema gevoerd is en in veel gevallen nog verder gevoerd gaat worden. Daarnaast hebben we een aantal meer zijdelings betrokkenen gevraagd om stelling te nemen met een uitspraak naar aanleiding van hun ervaringen tijdens het project. Het KaDEr-project omvatte na een intensieve voorbereiding vier kalenderjaren. We denken dat op het onderdelen nog een vervolg behoeft. KaDEr staat dus voor Karakteristiek Duurzaam Erfgoed en in het project is gewerkt aan energetische duurzaamheid, financieel gezond perspectief, functioneel gebruik en het borgen kennis op lange termijn. Het project zelf werd opgebouwd rond vier Living Labs om theorie en praktijk aan elkaar te koppelen: – Living Lab XL-Stad: Zutphen, Winterswijk en Elburg. Daarbij droegen we vanuit KaDEr bij aan een onderzoek naar Kerkenvisies en de Energietransitie voor diverse gemeenten; – Living Lab L-Gebied: Landgoederen, waar het Baaksebeekgebied en Gelders Arcadië centraal stonden en het onderzoek resulteerde in de betreffende Ontwerpatlas; – Living Lab M-Typologie: Kerken. Nationaal en regionaal een opgave die veel aandacht kreeg de afgelopen vier jaar. Specifiek keken wij vanuit KaDEr naar het functioneren van Energiescans en de Financiële Duurzaamheid aan de hand van de Eusebiuskerk in Arnhem en de Stevenskerk in Nijmegen; – Living Lab S-Gebouw: Reuversweerd. Een (bouw)locatie die we vier jaar lang intensief hebben gevolgd en waar alle partijen veel van hebben geleerd. We hebben daarnaast onderzoek gedaan naar afwegingsmodellen voor het verduurzamen van monumenten en de gevolgen van het na‑isoleren van monumenten met binnenisolatie. Er werden binnen de Living Labs en deelonderzoeken dus diverse overkoepelende thema’s aan de orde gesteld en beproefd en daar is lering uitgetrokken. Dit heeft zich ook vertaald in het gaandeweg aanpassen van de aanpak en in de voorbereiding van nieuw beleid. Het geeft ook aanleiding om op lange termijn zaken anders te gaan doen. Wat er is geleerd en waar bijgestuurd kan worden is in acht hoofdstukken samengevat. We reflecteren op het proces van het KaDErproject. We geven adviezen voor het bijsturen van beleid. Een visie op de toekomst, vanuit de provincie zelf, komt vervolgens aan de orde. Tijdens de vier jaren van uitvoering van het project is er op diverse schaalgebieden geacteerd. Op het grote schaalgebied is met het Living Lab L-Gebied (Landgoederen), een koppeling met het Europese Innocastle project gemaakt. Daar hebben ook ontwerpprojecten met studenten plaatsgevonden en er is een Ontwerpatlas samengesteld. Het leren van elkaar stond van het begin af aan bij het KaDErproject centraal. Samen met het Gelders Restauratie Centrum en de Monumentenwacht Gelderland zijn er onderwerpen via kennisoverdracht en workshops uitgewerkt. Via de koppeling van onderwijs aan bijvoorbeeld de stad werd in het Living Lab XL-Stad tussen studenten, gemeenteambtenaren en gebouweigenaren samengewerkt om van elkaar te leren. Bijzonder is het kerkelijk erfgoed en de wijze waarop de Kerkenvisie als instrument een rol zal spelen bij de herontwikkeling van kerken. Dit is in de praktijk samen met drie gemeenten uit de Oost-Achterhoek uitgewerkt. In het KaDEr project komen zo theorie en praktijk mooi samen. Concreet kunnen en zullen beslissingen op het schaalgebied van gebouw en materiaalgebruik belangrijke gevolgen hebben voor opdrachtverlening, uitvoering, instandhouding en subsidieverstrekking aan erfgoed. Door alle schalen heen richtten we steeds de blik op de toekomst. Daarbij kunnen we aan de energietransitie, die steeds urgenter wordt, niet voorbijgaan. Daar ligt zeker voor historische binnensteden een uitdaging. In twee gemeenten is hiervoor een inspirerende driedaagse ‘roadshow’ gehouden en is een energietransitie roadmap uitgewerkt. Het KaDEr-project heeft geleid tot een veelheid aan leerzame ervaringen die nu in de nabije de toekomst kunnen inspireren en hun weerslag krijgen in provinciaal beleid dat een duurzame instandhouding van monumentaal erfgoed binnen de provincie Gelderland een stap verder brengt. Duurzame instandhouding biedt een visie op de lange termijn en is de basis voor een maatschappelijk verantwoorde werkwijze. Het KaDEr-project kon alleen tot stand komen door een goede samenwerking tussen en vele krachtsinspanningen van vele partijen en personen. Namens de TU Delft bedankt de redactie van de publicatie KaDEr-stellingen alle betrokken personen bij de provincie Gelderland, de gemeenteambtenaren in Zutphen, Elburg, Winterswijk, Aalten en Oost Gelre, de partners van de Gelderse Erfgoed Alliantie, de monumenteneigenaren en hun architecten, adviseurs en projectleiders op locatie en met name die op Reuversweerd. Daarnaast was het succes van KaDEr niet mogelijk geweest zonder de inzet van docenten, onderzoekers vanuit drie afdelingen van de faculteit Bouwkunde van de TU Delft en de vele studenten die vier jaar lang aan het project hebben gewerkt en het tot een inspirerend en leerzaam geheel hebben gemaakt. Zie Bijlage 3: Overzicht direct betrokkenen bij het KaDEr-project vanuit de Provincie Gelderland en de TU Delft

Flowscapes:

Flowscapes explores infrastructure as a type of landscape and landscape as a type of infrastructure. The hybridization of the two concepts seeks to redefine infrastructure beyond its strictly utilitarian definition while allowing spatial design to gain operative force in territorial transformation processes. The publication provides perspectives on the subject from design-related disciplines such as architecture, urban design, urban planning, landscape architecture and civil engineering. The book builds upon the multidisciplinary colloquium on landscape infrastructures, that is part of the Flowscapes graduation design studio of Landscape Architecture at the TU Delft.  The authors explore concepts, methods and techniques for design-related research on landscape infrastructures. Their main objective is to engage environmental and societal issues by means of integrative and design-oriented approaches. Through focusing on interdisciplinary design-related research of landscape infrastructures they provide important clues for the development of spatial armatures that can guide urban and rural development and have cultural and civic significance. The geographical context of the papers covers Europe, Africa, Asia and Northern America. All contributions in the book are double blind reviewed by experts in the field